Giddens Theory of Social Practices | Analysis

Giddens Theory of brotherly Practices AnalysisThe aim of this paper is to critically evaluate the rationale stool Giddens guess of companionable practices and offer in depth of manifoldity and its mingled reconciling trunks in relation to managing strategicalalalalalal discourse. Several positionings and ideas flip been swayed by umteen authors and practitioners concerning interwovenness and dodge. Therefore the scope of the paper is expressage to how schema evolves in a Byzantine adjustive arrangement. In this context, heterogeneousness impart be explained, highlight on core competencies and re radical-establish view of the firms at that placefore debate on scheme while discussing the characteristics of strategic thinking and think and those regard in it. The paper is concluded having critically analysed the kind of leading style suited for managing diverse human behaviour and its surroundings during the strategic actions.Mitleton-Kelly (2002) colli gate kind practices to a self- cheekal context, whereby group of case-by-cases suddenly congregate to come a task, the group decides on what to do, why they should fulfill that task, who will be involved and how will it be done. So there is an interdependency and inter-connectivity among the entities involved (Kauffman, 1993). According to Wenger and Snyder (2000) kindly practices evolve from community of practice which shows how people act with their surroundings and solving jobs by means of human relationships. So Giddens (1979) opine that social practices be situated activities brings to b are the social interaction of human actions in spite of appearance a structure and the system.According to Cooper et al. (1992) the increasing competition, rise of worldwide markets and festering economic integration has brought dramatic change in industrial let outments and heed. And these have increased uncertainty, greater conflict and even complexities running crosswise all makeups. Citing example is conflicts between profit maximization at heart the diligence an organisation operates and care for the purlieu. This is causing organisations to constantly redefine their mindsets (Senge, 1990) to radically conceive of how to gain private-enterprise(a) gain in the dynamic line of products sector purlieu (McHardy, 1997). Mitleton-Kelly (2001, p. 3) viewed organisational complexness as be associated with the intricate inter-relationships of individuals, of individuals with artecircumstances (such(prenominal) as IT) and with ideas, and with effects of inter-actions indoors the organisation, as well as between institutions deep down a social ecosystem.Holland (1975) who impelled complex Adaptive System (CAS) viewed it as non-linear systems whose behaviour is placed by the interaction of its adaptive parts. The interaction is between the organisation and its environment (Sherif, 2006). Cilliers (2000) tell that the non-linearity of the interactio ns in a system is a condition for complexity. According to Mitleton-Kelly (2001) the ideology on strategy and changes in solicitude is ascribable to the fact that organisations is observed as a complex evolving systems whereby the inter playing agents changes with time (Cillier, 2000).Today, businesses faces more than challenges beca engross of the intricacy global net get everywhere down of organisations which propels managers to distinguish pragmatics finalitys (Pathak, et al., 2007). According to Choi and Hong (2002) the morphological complexities of the total chain interconnectedness and ability for an organisation to rapidly to a lower placestand and fit acclimatized to the dynamic environment to ensure long- limit survival (Brown and Eisenhardt, 1998) has been the embryonic fundaments that managers unremarkably encounter in decision making.Amaral and Uzzi (2007) commented on the complexity in the managerial context, stating that complex systems occurs when more interacting agents are impel to act on their curb resources and local information. The agents may be individuals, group, specialized acquaintance, organisations, industries, etc, (Holland and Miller, 1991 Allen, 1997). Author such as Kanter (1989) ac companionshipd the signifi in force(p) dealce for an organisation to endeavour to do more with less, stating that the unconditional to do more with less is a mutual management theme across a range of industries. Thus be advance productive and in force(p) with fewer resources.According to Bovaird (2008) the complexity theory which demonstrates the concept of formulatening in an open system is abstractly embedded with elemental difficulties. The implementation of CAS point approach and behavioral adaptive system helps organization to improve their decision making that will increase the efficiency and the awareness of competition and as much as preparing for external uncertainties (Abell et al. 1999). Example of a family that hav e emolumented from implementing the CAS tenets into their operational activities include Boeings contact-up the ghost which reduced its risk of expensive crack supply networks delays by re be aftering of the 787 Dreamliner supply network. Equally, companies such as noia, quickly learn to be adaptive in their behaviour in hyper-competitive environment. In the causal agency of zero(prenominal)ia and Ericsson, a fire outbreak to their sole supplier (Philips) for particular discontinue interrupted the supply of chips to both manufactures. Whiles Ericsson suffered an estimated loss of $2.34 billion, nary(prenominal)ia quickly connected with Philips to induce an alternative supply options that will ensure regular supply of the chips to nary(prenominal)ia (Sheffi and Rice, 2005).Barney (1991) set the economic and hyper-competitive environment as drivers of resource-base viewed which requires strategic and self-management of the cost and scarcity of resources (Griffiths, 2004) so as to generate superior returns (Priem and Butler, 2001). So the hyper-competitive environment also put to works the absolute frequency and take of strategic activities (Eisenhardt and Santos, 2002). Mintzberg (1987) defined strategy in five price plan ploy pattern position and perspective. Similarly, Abraham (2005) viewed strategic thinking as identifying possible business models that results in customer value. According to Pryor et al. (1998) the traditional means of strategic planning was familiarize to quantitative analysis where the strategies were planned based on results or analysed data without strategically thinking of the implementers (low level employees) of the strategic plan.Mintzberg (1994) and Boar (2000) distinguish strategic planning or action as the progeny of strategic thinking. Thus, whereas the thinking involves synthesis back up intuitive, innovative and yeasty thinking at all levels of the organisation, the planning is concern with analysis establi shing and formalising systems and procedures (Heracleous, 1998). This is shown in figure 1. Mintzberg (1994) and Boar (2000) concluded that good strategic planning fire only be implemented after strategic thinking had occurred. Mitleton-Kelly (2001) express that the ideology on strategy and changes in management is due to the fact that organisations is observed as a complex evolving systems whereby the interacting agents changes with time (Cillier, 2000). Kauffman (1997) and Maturana (1997) argue that strategies should be physiqueed as an adaptive move towards the changing business environment. However, adaptive organisations encounter conflicting constraints within their internal organisation and the environment within which it interacts. This Kauffman refers to as complexity catastrophe (Kauffman, 1993). Kauffman and Macready (1995) identified Information technology (IT) and the growing of social network as the major constraints to adaptive system. Therefore, modelling of compl exity requires the strategist and practitioners to model organisations especially how human and structural capitals interact with the use of IT systems as well as modelling of the environment to overcome the complexity catastrophe (Sanderson, 1998).Masaaki Imai, a leading Tokyo based management adviser argued that identifying an organisations resource-based view such as its resources and capabilities is critical in determining its strategic action (Imai, n.d). In support of this, Hitt et al. (2009) express that a firms chosen business strategy should be make to exploit its core competences relative to the evaluate opportunities in the external environment. According to Porter (1996) an organisation will stick up in this dynamic business environment when it is able to variediate its strategy by creating its core competency that gives the organisation a competitive advantage over its competitors. Porter punctuate that an organisation tummy boast of good strategy only when its di fficult for its competitors to catch up/imitate what it does. He argued that a business model that does not offer an organisation a sustainable competitive advantage is not a good strategy since its competitors can offer the same product to the market.Bonn (2001) suggested three core attributes as the prerequi localize for the victorious occurrence of strategic thinking. These include recognising the linkages and complexity of the relationships exist between an organisation and its environment in a holistic way, creative thinking by reviewing the old ideas and practices and merging it with smart ideas and having a hallucination for the organisation. Nonetheless, a viable vision and mission of an organisation should be flexible so as to conform to an ever-changing business environment (Wilson, 1998). Besides the take of managing the firms tangible and intangible resources will be the firms strategic competitiveness (Hitt et al., 2009). The draw illustrates the outcome of strate gic actions.According to Abraham (2005) the strategy is all about gentle and can only be achieved through strategic thinking and planning. strategical processes have shifted from the processes of strategic learning by organizations (Crossan and Berdrow, 2003) to an increasing strategy as a social practice (Jarzabkowski, 2005). Similarly, Eisenhardt and Brown (1998) argue that modern strategy has shifted from the traditional way of stooling long-term defensible positions to a endless adaptation and improvement into the business environment. Abraham (2005) pointed out that differentiation in price of finding a technique/innovative way to discover a sustainable competitive advantage (increasing customer value and profit) is one of the challenges of strategic thinking. However, Sanderson (1998) carry that in this modern era, the ability for an organisation to manage knowl borderline and the resultant changes in organisation is the main discern to think of and obtain strategic ad vantage and become conquestfully competitive. On the other hand, the complex changes and continuous quest to gain competitive advantage (Abraham, 2005) has led to the harvest of co-operation such as strategic alliances and joint venture to respond to the unpeaceful and turbulent environment (Sanderson, 1998).In a aboriginalnote speech by the president and chief operating officer of Coca Cola family Munich, Kent (2008) stated that the sustainable future of an organisation is not achievable without sustainable leaders and leadership. Moreover sustainable leadership will necessitate organisations to build strong culture of sustainability. Leadership plays a major character reference in affecting decision processes (Chung and McLarney, 1999) since members within a structure mostly depends on powerful leaders to initiate decisions (Schneider and Shrivastava, 1988).According to Hambrick and Mason (1984) strategy is usually made and executed at the upper hierrarchial levels. Thus the most strategists within an organization is the Chief Executive Officers (chief operating officers) and their top management teams and the wag of directors of which Whittington (2006) classified ad them as practitioners. Simultaneously, their profession which includes writing, presenting, communicating, find outings, consulting, etc also requires certain practices such as thinking, analyzing and acting (Angwin et al., 2009). However, Macus (2008) perceive the boards as a strategic resource of an organization that influences its performance. realize 3 illustrates strategic as practice approach.Boar (2000) stated that a strategist thinks about many issues in multiple dimensions at many levels of abstraction and detail over time (past, present and future) whiles the planning or action processes of the strategy requires cost and time of which all strategists must take that into look atation (Linn, 2008). So the role of strategists is to instill a sense of vision that the staffs of t he organisation will work towards (Hamal and Prahalad, 1993) and not to specify every move in advance.According to Simpson (1998) strategy is centered towards the future, hence an effective and good strategists is to understand the history of the organisation, its leadership and the industry it operates, so study the successful and unsuccessful initiative the organisation has engaged over the past 5-10 geezerhood as well as to enable plan for the future years. In the situation whereby different entities engage in an interaction to undertake a bulge, a complex inter-relationship is created (Mitleton-Kelly 2001). In this oddball, a consultant can be hired to help both entities in strategising the planning of the project in order to reap mutual benefit ( ). Also the transfer of knowledge and information to accomplish any task is determine by the level of connectedness and relationship within the actors (Kauffman, 1993). However, Mitzberg (1994 ) criticize the proponents of strateg ic planning stating that it is delusory for strategists who are detached from the business operations to forecast occurrences for an organisation and its industry of operation and that formalising procedures to produce strategy is also a fallacy sooner of operationalising on already existing strategies. Equally Collins and Parcas (1994) argue it is a myth that successful companies make their best moves by brilliant and complex strategic planning. Instead the moves made by visionary companies is through series of experiments, trials and error and then take opportunity on those that work perfectly for them. In view of this, Mitleton-Kelly (2001) also stated that trying different strategies exposes organisations to risk.Wenger and Snyder (2000) suggested setting up of communities of practice as one of the best structures for developing strategic thinking. This structure creates thinking environment which involves experienced managers and employees from different sectors and geograph ic areas to share their skill, knowledge and experiences to develop strategies or business models that influences the future of the company considering the three timing dimensions- past, present and future (Boar, 2000). This structure is similar to the multi-disciplinary project team. Bonn (2001) identified strategic forum as another structures for developing strategic thinking. She argued that this proactive approach should involve successful managers with a proven track record in their own disciplines to focus on areas that will benefit the long-term health of the organisation.According to Kennedy (2005) the diverse cultural values of employees makes managers postulate with complex issues and systems which requires many intangible aspects as tangible ones. Mantere and Whittington (2007) stated that cause human behavior in a system is really complex. MacGregors (1960) undefiled division in management theories distinguishes human beings into Theory X and Y. The former are the ind ividuals who are self-interested, work-avoiding and passive whiles the afterward refers to those who are responsible, communitarian and voluntary to learn. McGregor (1960) re-emphasize that strategic action will successfully be implemented only when the managers are able to determine the behaviours of the subordinates, the value system and their potency in the subordinate (Tannenbaum and Schmidt, 1958) and influence them to achieve positive result. Argyris (1956) argue that subordinates who are immature (Theory X) requires an autocratic leadership style whereas the matured ones (Theory Y) require a democratic leadership style. Morison (1967) on the other hand re-emphasized that organisation whose management flexibly gives its staff lot of latitude to plan strategically are better-off than organisations whose managers are autocratic in making decisions. In view of this, Fiedlers (1967) chance model suggest that the ability of the managers is to carefully assess the situation and lead a suitable dominant style to improve their leadership role in revitalizing the vision of the organization. However, Calder et al. (1977) argued that despite complexity involves managing human being the existence of leadership is only a perception.Simpson (1998) identified communication, performance measures, respect systems and training programs as the main driving force that influences strategic actions. effectual communication through knowledge and information sacramental manduction in an organisation will enable the strategy to be acted upon in the appropriate direction. Hopkins and Hopkins (2002) stated that interactions among group of people simultaneously influences their group actions and is observed as the key predictor of group performance (Kanki et al., 1991). Tziner and Vardi (1983) pointed out higher quality of problem solving, greater productivity and efficiency, better achievement and greater group propitiation as the benefits of smooth interactions among memb ers of a group. However, Ziegler et al. (2000) argues that the effectiveness of group interaction can be ostracizely affected (Steiner, 1976) in the situation whereby a hit person is dominating a group interaction to solve complex task. Simpson (1998) continue to express that measuring the performance of the executed plan will assist the organisation to spotlight on the most important whiles astir(p) upon the performances. Rewards and compensation on the other hand motivates the staffs to make the strategic plan a reality by achieving positive results. Moreover the organisation should mug up training programs to psychologically work on the staffs attitudes and skills whiles executing the strategic plans.Furthermore, Stasser et al. (1989) made an interesting comment that most of the best contribution and supports to solutions or complex task is normally generated from ad hoc informal board interactions which occurs outside committal or board meetings among the directors. Ruppert (2009) also emphasise that informal discussion among board members, top management and stakeholders, occurs at the golf course, spending sometime at the beach, pub or restaurant when drinking beer. According to Coutts et al. (2005) the aforementioned places by Ruppert (2009) leads to social training and contributes to team performance within an organisation.DAvani and MacMillan (1990) suggest that managers should not dwell much on previous success because of the dynamic business environment as it is easy for such managers to fall prey to what Duhaime and Schwenk (1985) term as illusion of control. In addition Ansoff (1984) argue that planetary managers who perform satisfactorily and succeed in an environment does not give them the assurance of succeeding on a different environment where there is lower or higher level of business turbulence (cited in Mantere and Whittington, 2007). According to Linn (2008) one of the concepts that organisations must consider during strategic plann ing processes is the nerd analysis. This gives detailed account of the organisation strengths and weaknesses as well as the opportunities and threats of the competitive environment. Mantere and Whittington (2007) claim that the SWOT analysis is one of the most popular strategic tool that has been adoptive as business policy to flexibly develop and shape strategists and practitioners. The outcome of strategic actions from interacting with the environmental forces provides the platform for organisational learning when the experiences of these outcomes is then feed back into the scanning and interpretation processes (Chung and McLarney, 1999). In support of this, Ashby (1969) re-emphasise that an organisation can survive in a complex system by exploring its space of possibilities thus continuously scanning the landscape and encouraging alternative strategies. On the other hand, the feedback helps in identifying ones strength and specifity of asset (Sherif, 2006). Furthermore, Prigogi ne and stengers (1985) claim that feedback from implemented strategic plans either being positive or negative helps to create stability in complex system through a precise prediction of the agents behaviour and planning accordingly (cited in Mtleton-Kelly, 2001).strategic processes have some shortcomings (Tavakoli and Lawton, 2005). The authors argue that normally the knowledge and experience of the social move line employees are not incorporated into the information gathered during the strategic thinking process. On the other hand, the authors argue that the absence of the higher-ranking management may also mis run across the mission of the organisation. Even though strategic planning usually occurs at the top of organizations (Christensen et al., 1982), Bourgeois and Brodwins (1984) claim that organizations perform better when strategic thinking and planning is delegated downwards so as to benefit from the information gathered at frontline. Moreover, Hambrick (1987) argue that strategic success is assured when the entire top management team share common values and posses qualities that robustly fits into evolving competitive environment.To conclude strategy is recognized as an organizational phenomenon which is significant for organizational performance and growth. strategic practices never ends so long as there continue to be complex evolving system hence correspondence the nature of complex system is important. Therefore adapting to such systems which has been challenged by practitioners requires good leadership that will promote knowledge sharing and learning in engaging into strategic thinking and planning. 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(2007) Becoming a strategist senior manager trajectories. Paper presented at the 23rd EGOS Colloquium Beyond Waltz Dances of Individuals and Organisation 5-7 July.Mintzberg, H. (1987) Five Ps for strategy, in Mintzberg, H., Quinn, J.B. (Eds), meter readings in the Strategy Process , third Edition., Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs, N.J, pp. 10-17.Mintzberg, H. (1994) Rise and Fall of Strategic Planning, Prentice Hall, New York.Mitleton-Kelly, E. (2001) Complex Systems and evolutionary Perspectives of Organisations The application of complexity theory to organizations, London School of Economics, 29 June.Mitleton-Kelly, E. (2002) Complex Systems and Evolutionary Perspectives of Organisations The application of complexity theory to organizations. London School of Economics, June. Online available at http//www.psych.lse.ac.uk/complexity/events/PDFiles/publ ication/Ten_principles_of_complexity_enabling_infrastructure.pdf Accessed on 18/05/10.Morison, S.E. (1967) History of fall in States Naval Operations in World War II Vol IV, chromatic Sea, Midway and Submarine Actions, May 1942-August 1942, Little, Brown Co. Boston, MA.Pathak, S.D., Day, J.M., Nair, A., Sawaya. W.J. and Kristal, M.M. (2007) Complexity and Adaptivity in planning Networks Building Supply Network Theory Using a Complex Adaptive Systems Perspective, Decision Sciences, Vol. 38, No. 4, pp. 547-580.Porter, M. (1996) What is Strategy? Harvard Business Review 74, November-December, pp. 61-78.Priem, R. and Butler, J.E. (2001) Is the resource-based view a useful perspective for strategic management research? Academy of Management Review, Vol. 26, No. 1, pp. 22-40.Pryor, M.G., White, J.C. and Toombs, L.A. (1998) Strategic Quality Management A strategic, system approach to continuous improvement, Thompson Learning.Ruppert, B. (2009) Beer The Key Ingredient to Team Developme nt. SANS Institute Reading Room site. Online available at http//www.sans.org/reading_room/whitepapers/leadership/beer-key-ingredient-team-development_33104 Accessed on 17/05/10.Sanderson, S.M. (1998) New approaches to strategy new ways of thinking for the millennium, Management Decision, Vol. 36, No. 1, pp. 9-13.Schneider, S.C. and Shrivastava, P. (1988) staple assu rationalism in computer computer architecture eighteenth and twentieth Century lay offthinking in architecture 18th and 20th CenturyIntroductionRationalism began as a 17th coke ideology that led to the Enlightenment, a period in history where reason was the primary instrument for justifying and understanding the hows and whys of things and circumstances. The Enlightenment was a time where cover evidence through scientific research flourished and Rationalism influenced all field of endeavors and even simple unremarkable tasks.1 In layman terms, to be rational is to be understandable, measurable or definite. Using thi s as premise, Rationalism in computer architecture therefore pertains to accuracy in inventioning and building the height, breadth or depth of a structure. Architectural Rationalism was a solid evidence of the Enlightenment influence in the field of architecture. It continues to persist in the modern world as an independent art movement though much of the modern rationalist designs have little resemblance to Enlightenment architecture.Henceforth, this essay attempts to contextualize Rationalism by differentiating its two variants 18th atomic number 6 Rationalism and the recent 20th cytosine development. The similarities and differences of their respective designs and, if possible, functions are noted to give us an idea on how Rationalism has evolved as an architectural ideology. The essay also includes discussions on sub-movements, their pioneers and their trademarks.18th Century RationalismThe Enlightenment Architectural Rationalism was focused on being symmetrical, having ac curate measurements of classic shapes, and functionality. It clearly reflected the spirit of the times where science, math and logic were at the peak of their influence.Neoclassicism was a widespread movement under the positivist wing. It was established in reaction to the flamboyant and seemingly unjustify Baroque and Rococo styles. During the neoclassicist boom, many artworks and structural designs of the classical Hellenic era were recalled together with the architectural works of Italian Andrea Palladio.2 The movement was named neoclassical, as opposed to pure classicism, as not every classical design was applied therein. Neoclassicists only selected from the wide array of designs those feasible to society. Neoclassicist designs were characterized as follows symmetry, columns that functioned as support, minimalistic design composed of basic geometric shapes, and an overlaid triangular gable end commonly cognise as pediment. The symmetry, functionality, and geometrical aspec ts of the neoclassicist movement were be characteristics of the Rationalist ideology.3The Pediment4 A Column5Existing in the 16th century towards the close of the Renaissance period, Andrea Palladio was the first cognise architect to revive and apply the classical designs of Graeco-Roman society in many villas, palaces and basilicas. His architecture became an essential excogitation of Enlightenment Architecture. As a dedicated follower of Vitruvius and his timeless principle of firmitas, utilitas, venustas, Palladio carefully ensured that his structural designs were durable, useful, and attractive as stipulated by Vitruvius in his ten-volume chef-doeuvre De Architectura. Palladio was also particular about proportions and putting a take aim on every structural component.6 For instance, a portico or terrace must be utilized in such a way that the surrounding tantrum was seen in its full glory. He wanted geographical attributes of the estate to match with the nominates structu ral design. The palazzos, villas and basilicas he designed displayed the intermingling values of beauty and the social environment and position of their respective owners. An urban palazzo was different from a provincial palazzo analogouswise, an hoidenish villa was different from a residential villa. Palladio designed structures according to their context.7Palladio had contributed several design innovations in public buildings and churches. Most Palladian works were made of low-cost materials, usually stucco, traditionally made with lime, sand and water, to cover and bind bricks. His urban structures for prestigious Venetian owners had high classical porticos with pediments that extended as off the beaten track(predicate) as the second floor and were supported by giant colonnades. These porticos were raised(a) above ground level and on the same level as the rest of the ground floor. This raised floor called piano nobile, was reused in later variations of neoclassical architectu re. Palazzo Chiericati in the city of Vicenza was a fine example of this urban structure.8Palazzo Chiericati (1550-1557)9Rural villas were rather different. Instead of the piano nobile, there was an elevated stump bordered by lower service wings, connected with an elegant slue flight of stairs. The owner maintained residence at the elevated portion. Villa Foscari (also La Malcontenta) was among the mid-16th century designs of Palladio that employed this celebrated building format.Villa Foscari (1559)10The 1570 publishing of Palladios work Quattro Libri dellArchitettura (The quadruplet Books of Architecture), stretched his influence far beyond his home country Italy. Palladios architectural drawings and discussions contained in the book set the stage for neoclassicist expansion in the key European countries of France, Britain, Ireland, Spain and Germany.11 Even more remarkable was his influence in compound and post-colonial America, where his designs were replicated in the houses of well-known families, state buildings and even the private abode of Thomas Jefferson, the freedom President.12 Along with Palladios treatise, the unearthing and discovery of Pompeii and Herculaneum, Roman towns destroyed by volcanic eruption during the classical period, was thought to inspire the interior designs of 18th century European houses and edifices.13The Ruins of Pompeii14 Interior View of a Herculaneum House15In Europe, neoclassicist architecture developed at different paces. Some sources estimated that the movement reached its peak in France with tienne-Louis Boulle and Claude Nicolas Ledoux. The two architects followed principles of rationality into their Graeco-Roman inspired designs. Boulle was known for fusing geometry with the standard classics. This original neoclassical deviation might have been influenced by his work as an educator and philosopher at cole Nationale Des Ponts et Chausses. comparable most neoclassicists, his designs were minimalistic, devoid of ornamentation, bold enough to repeat certain structural components, especially if they were functional (i.e. columns), and sought to emphasize the purpose of the structure and its parts. Boulle also proposed a cenotaph, an approximately 500-foot sphere rooted on a round foundation, for the English scientist Isaac Newton. This was not feasible to build but as a professional engraving, the style gained prominence. Boulles works were later bring back by 20th century Rationalists and more popularly by renowned Modernist architect, Aldo Rossi. Contemporary architects found his designs unique and very inventive although some would consider them illusions of grandeur. The Htel Alexandre in Paris, known for its flanking courtyard doors and Corinthian columns, was one of Boulles surviving works.16Cenotaph for Newton (1784)17 Htel Alexandre (1763-66)18 Like his compatriot, Ledoux was very terrific in his architecture, always wanting to build with a purpose. For this he and Boulle were bran ded Utopians.19 Ledoux designed many theatres, hotels, residential homes, and buildings, supplied with rotundas, columns and domes from the Graeco-Roman period. His known architectural innovation was the architectonic order, best exhibited through his design on the royal stag Saltworks at Arc-et-Senans. He was appointed Royal Architect for the express purpose of building a structural design for efficiently extracting salt. The Royal Saltworks became a significant example of 18th century Architectural Rationalism for its encompassing use of geometry and logical arrangement of shapes to facilitate the extraction and transportation processes. some other design was drawn after the first was disapproved.20Facade of the Royal Saltworks, France21 airy View of Ledoux Second Design (1804)22There were many other self-aggrandizing figures under the neoclassical movement but few were as Utopian as the works of Boulle and Ledoux. French writer-teacher-architect Jean-Nicolas-Louis Durand infl uenced several German Rationalists by adding principles of economy and convenience to the existing architectural Utopia.23 The later renditions of neoclassicism in Britain, America, and Spain do by the attachment to symmetry and geometry that Palladio himself and the French neoclassicists were very particular. However, they did retain much of the functionality aspect. For example, neo-Palladian British architects William Kent and Indigo Jones invented the flanking wings to give more space in the house interior.24 This concern for utilizing space was still an archetype of 18th century Rationalism.20th Century Rationalism20th century Rationalist architecture was interchangeably called Neo-Rationalist. Although the designs were different from 18th century rationalism, neo-Rationalists continued to practice important principles of Rationalist Architecture. The simplistic form and ornamentation was still retained the functionality aspect became known as theme. In fact, as many historian s claimed, neo-Rationalism was an evolution of 18th century Enlightenment Architecture.25 The need to justify architectural works remained strong as it had then. The Enlightenment brought about the Industrial Revolution around 18th-19th centuries. The effects lasted and were carried over to the 20th century, where industrialisation became a fad. Economic advancement was no eternal associated with brick and wood but with new elements like steel, iron and glass. As industrialization reached its peak in the 20th century, the growing importance of machinery led to the development of an industrial architecture, composed of those new elements.26Modernism was the dominant rationalist movement of the 1900s. It basically aimed to employ new materials suited to the spirit of industrialization and free architects from the bondage of styles, which curtailed individual touches. The works of early Modernists Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius in Germany and Frenchman Le Corbusier were m ostly products of socio-political revolutions. Following World War I, the German Modernist ventured into new structures that meet social needs.27 The Bauhaus design school resulted from this venture. Bauhaus became identified as the International panache, adopted by many Modern structural designs in various countries.28 The chase are famous examples of Bauhaus architectureThe UN New York Base by Le Corbusier29 The Gropius Residence in Lincoln30The International Style was characterized by rational principles of minimal art and functional design and structure. Neoclassical pediments, columns and flanking wings were replaced by rectangular shapes of concrete cement, steel, and other new elements. There were hardly traces of particular cultures or social context and a neutral architecture that was universally applicable prevailed.31Modernists like Frank Lloyd Wright tried to balance nature and structural designs.32 Later, Postmodernist movements emerged to rede the universality of B auhaus and infuse local identities into modern architecture so it can connect with peoples sentiments.33 Aldo Rossi, Italian theorist-architect-designer-artist, was among the celebrated Postmodernists. His valuable contribution to urban architecture was building contemporary structures without neglecting the historical value of the city or site where it would be built. He stressed the social significance of monuments and cemeteries and also advocated that structures be strong enough for succeeding generations to witness.34 San Cataldo Cemetery expanded by Rossi (1971)35 Bonnefanten Museum, Maastricht by Rossi (1990-1994)36Conclusion18th and 20th century Architectural Rationalists are linked by the ancient principles of utilitas, firmitas, venustas. Their respective movements were generally non-ornamental and useful in structure, design and theme. In the area of symmetry, the use of geometrical shapes, and projecting cultural and individual sentiments, the two Rationalist regimes dif fer. 18th century Rationalists were unified in advocating honor and beauty in architecture while neo-Rationalists had individual contradictions.37 Nevertheless, both strands justified Architectures major roles in society and in peoples lives.Sources1 Hackett Lewis. (1992) The age if enlightenment, History World International at http//history-world.org/age_of_enlightenment.htm2 Steve Fallon Nicola Williams. (2008) Paris city guide, get together Kingdom, Lonely major planet Publications, p. 48.4 University of Pittsburgh at http//www.pitt.edu/medart/menuglossary/pediment.htm5 Old House Web at http//www.oldhouseweb.com/architecture-and-design/greek-revival-1820-1850.shtml6 Bernd Evers, Christof Thoenes Kunstbibliothek. (2003) Architectural theory from the renaissance to the present, Germany, TASCHEN pp. 6-7.7 Sam Smiles Stephanie Moser. 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(1966) From the classicists to the impressionists art and architecture in the nineteenth century, Connecticut, Yale University Press pp. 227-311.21 United Nations Educational, Scientific and C ultural Organization at http//whc.unesco.org/en/list/20323 bliss Monice Malnar Frank Vodvarka. (2004) Sensor design, Minneapolis, The University of Minnesota Press p. 8.24 Inigo Jones, William Kent. (1727) The designs of Inigo Jones consisting of plans and elevations for publick, England, W. Kent pp. 1-73.25 Christopher Crouch. (2000) Modernism in Art Design and Architecture, New York, St. Martins Press pp. 1-10.26 Industrial architecture, Encyclopdia Britannica Online at http//www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/286910/industrial-architecture27 Richard J. Evans. (2003) The coming of the third reich, New York, The Penguin Press, pp. 122-123.28 Henry Russell Hitchcock Philip Johnson. (1997)The International Style, New York, W. W. 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